A Peoples History Of The United States Chapter Fo Essay Example For Students

A Peoples History Of The United States Chapter Fo Essay urAs the British and Colonists were occupied with the Seven Years War against the French and Indians, the homesteaders were gradually developing affections for their expulsion from under the British crown. There had been a few uprisings to topple the provincial governments. At the point when the war finished and the British were successful, they proclaimed the Proclamation of 1763 which expressed that the land west of the Appalachians was to be held for the Native American populace. The settlers were befuddled and insulted and the now aspiring social elites were chomping at the bit to coordinate that outrage against the English since the French were not, at this point a danger. Nonetheless, the social first class was a miniscule level of the frontier populace. As reported in city charge records, the top 5% of Bostons citizens controlled 49% of the urban areas available resources. The lower classes at that point began to utilize town gatherings to communicate their sentiments. Men lik e James Otis and Samuel Adams from the privileged societies shaped the Boston Caucus and through their inspirational talking, formed and initiated the working class. After the Stamp Act of 1765, the Britishs tax collection from pilgrims to pay for the Seven Year War, the lower-class raged and decimated trader homes to level the differentiation of rich and poor. A hundred lower-classmen needed to languish over the luxury of one upper-classmen. They requested increasingly political majority rule government in which the regular workers could partake in making approaches. In 1776 races for the sacred encircling of Pennsylvania, a Privates Committee asked the restriction of rich-men in the show. Indeed, even in the open country, there were comparable clashes of rich against poor. A few mobs in the New York/Jersey region were more than riots however dependable social developments to make counter governments. Agitators were breaking into correctional facilities and liberating their compani ons. Before long notwithstanding, the lower-classmen began to go to the British for help against the rich pilgrims. With the strengthening of the British clash, the pilgrim heads began to consider approaches to bring together themselves with the agitators to deal with the British. Be that as it may, the Regulators, workers, appealed to the administration on their complaints and thus a huge uproar broke out in 1770 of every a court.Riots against the Stamp Act cleared Boston in 1767. The pioneers affected group activity and right now, 10% of the citizens represented 66% of the available wealth.This revolt caused pioneers to understand the quandary thus the Loyal Nine was shaped, a gathering of talented workers, and a parade, of a few thousand, against the Stamp Act was sorted out in August 1765. Still the pioneers criticized the parades activities and in any event, when the demonstration was canceled, a festival was just gone to by the non-processioners. In Britains next endeavor to b urden the pioneers, troops were sent and grinding grew.On March 5, 1770 British officers murdered laborers in a battle known as the Boston Massacre and outrage mounted rapidly. This prompted the evacuation of the warriors structure Boston. There had likewise been officer specialist clashes somewhere else. In 1772 the Boston Committee of Correspondence was framed to sort out enemy of British activities. With the Boston Tea Party of 1773, an activity against the tea charge, the Parliament proposed the Coercive (Intolerable) Acts which shut the Boston port broke down the provincial government in Massachusetts and prompted the bringing in of troops. In different states it was obvious to the pioneers that they expected to convince the lower class to redirect their indignation against British and join the insurgency. Men like Patrick Henry, a speaker, and Tom Paine, creator of Common Sense, alleviated the pressure between classes albeit a few blue-bloods were irritated by the thought and didnt need the nationalist reason to go excessively far into popular government. In any case, Paine emphatically accepted that such a law based government could speak to some extraordinary basic intrigue. The Continental Congress was framed in 1774. After the clashes of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, a little panel was shaped to draw up the Declaration of Independence, embraced by the Congress on July 2 and announced July 4, 1776. At this point most colonials had just encountered their sentiments of autonomy and invited it. The Declaration incorporated a rundown about the lord holding an oppression over the states. A few people, however, wer e excluded from the Declaration: Indians, blacks, slaves, ladies yet in the expression all men are made equivalent, they were not purposely included yet included by the meaning of men. It likewise expresses that an administration is framed to advance the life, freedom, and satisfaction of the individuals and when so halted the individuals may supplant it. Some follow this thought back to John Lockes Second treatise on Government. .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b , .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b .postImageUrl , .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b .focused content region { min-tallness: 80px; position: relative; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b , .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b:hover , .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b:visited , .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b:active { border:0!important; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; haziness: 1; change: darkness 250ms; webkit-progress: mistiness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b:active , .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b:hover { obscurity: 1; change: murkiness 250ms; webkit-progress: obscurity 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b .focused content region { width: 100%; position: relati ve; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b .ctaText { fringe base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: striking; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; text-improvement: underline; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; outskirt: none; fringe span: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: intense; line-stature: 26px; moz-fringe sweep: 3px; text-adjust: focus; text-embellishment: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: outright; right: 0; top: 0; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u087d76d1151d5 abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b .focused content { show: table; tallness: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u087d76d1151d5abfb5ff91bccedf7b8b:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: Th planets EssayThe Declaration was presented and perused from the town corridor gallery in Boston. Amusingly an individual from the Loyal Nine, men that contradicted aggressor activity against the British, read it. After four days a military draft happened and the rich avoided it by paying for substitutes when the poor needed to serve. Revolting followed with the yelling of oppression is oppression let it originate from whom it may.Category: History

The Leadership Effectiveness Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Leadership Effectiveness - Research Paper Example The all out quality administration uncovers the standard followed by the association directly from the moment inputs subtleties to the last conveyance of the item or administration. The TQM delineates the realities which empower the association to see the mission to exceed expectations in the business. It gives a stage to accomplish results by focusing on the components which impact the most in this contemporary world the client center and the client worthiness. A pioneer needs to see a 3600 perspective on each viewpoint directly from the item assembling to the client esteem observations; which portrays the perfect characteristics to be followed; Deming made a philosophical system of fourteen quality administration focuses weights on the significance of the representative fulfillment and consumer loyalty with equivalent incentive to the consumer loyalty. Andrew Grove expressed, If ranking directors and expertise administrators share a typical perspective on the business, the probabil ity of their recognizing changes in the earth and reacting in a proper manner will extraordinarily increment. Sharing a typical image of the guide of the business and its elements is a key device in making your association a versatile one. (Andrew, 1999) While the possibility hypothesis is about the pioneers who are task situated and adjust as per the undertakings and a few heads react with the between relationship among the representatives to accomplish the work. The situational authority hypothesis clarifies the characteristics of the leader’s to make to devise the systems as indicated by the disposition of the representatives working under him, in this manner surrounding the choices to cause the subordinates to feel good to the new procedures conform to the circumstance or to the operational condition worried around there. I for one watched this idea inside my organization.â When I was a First Sergeant of an association of 145 Soldiers, I utilized this idea every day. I was not given a decision of who my Soldiers were or originated from; subsequently, I needed to adjust and apply every ability to every individual Soldier.

The Big MIT Career Fair

The Big MIT Career Fair As I write this, droves of MIT students, sharply dressed in suits, are making their way to the largest of MITs annual career fairs. Today, 300 companies are on campus trying to recruit MIT students to come work for them, or to do a summer internship. The companies span the spectrum from tradional engineering companies like Ford and Raytheon to service organizations like the Peace Corps and Teach For America. Heres a smapling of some of the many, many employers on campus today: Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) iRobot Biogen Idec Bose Goldman Sachs Veolia Water Solutions Technologies US Patent and Trademark Office Google Los Alamos National Laboratory Nokia Darby Darby, P.C. Rolls-Royce Harvard University National Security Agency (NSA) Bank of America Xanga.com Childrens Hospital Boston US Department of Energy McKinsey Company Microsoft and thats just a sampling. When I was looking at colleges, I remember wondering if MIT graduates only went to work for technical companies. I later learned thats not the case at all (by looking at the list of companies that recruit on campus, or lists of alumni, for example). Certainly companies involved with biotech and computers are popular, but so are opportunities in finance, the federal government, and much more. According to statistics from the MIT Careers Office, in recent years, the companies that have hired the most MIT students include management consulting firms McKinsey and Bain, software companies Google and Microsoft, engineering companies Raytheon and General Electric, and investment banks Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley. Leading up to the Career Fair, the MIT Careers Office has a Career Week (and now, since thats been so popular, a Pre Career Week) to prepare resumes, do mock interviews, learn how to research a company, how to network, and more. Career Week also includes a variety of banquets, company information sessions, and networking opportunities. For our seniors, it will be nice for many of them to have a job lined up a month into senior year, almost a year in advance. For the underclassmen, Career Week is a great first opportunity to line up internships for the summer and for IAP. I remember Career Week being both daunting and exciting when I was a student. Much like the college admissions process, the job recruiting process was filled with thousands of options and no one clear path. But with the right advice and a bit of self-knowledge and introspection, navigating the process can be quite worthwhile. So, if you see an MIT student in a suit today, you know whats going on. Wish them well with their job hunt.

The Controversy Of Physician Assisted Suicide - 2213 Words

There is so much controversy about physician assisted suicide. There is even controversy about the wording itself. Some call it physician assisted suicide, while others refuse to use the word suicide at all, in correlation to the meaning of this subject, which I will discuss later. There are a few different ways to say it, but all mean basically the exact same thing; death with dignity, end of life option, aid in dying, and the right to die. No one wants to die. But the harsh reality is that when a person is diagnosed with a terminal illness, it is a life changing diagnosis, literally. No one likes the idea of dying, no matter how it is phrased, maybe the reason it is so terrifying is none of us have ever died before to talk about it,†¦show more content†¦When the address was read out over the airwaves, my heart sank. It was my brother who was performing CPR on my mother. This call was in our district, and immediately I was given permission by the officer in charge to leave and head over to the hospital that my mother was being transported to. She was revived, but in critical condition and the outlook was very grim. My mother is a pride filled, and spiritual woman, however her devotion to the Lord had no impact on her fate. If the option to have a physician assisted death was available, no doubt in my mind that she would have elected it. She wanted to go on her terms, with minimal pain. Three long, tear filled days passed as she moaned in pain until Annette Vine took her final breath surrounded by family. I am forever grateful that our family was there in her final moments, however I wish she could have passed with more pride and dignity. Not an easy subject, and a lot of controversy. If my mother could have the choice to decide, and the benefit of a doctor to advise and educate, it would have been a less painful, more peaceful, and sacred ending for her. Taking this option off the table for patients like my mother, the medical world is denying patients the ability to pass in peace and when they are truly ready to face the inevitable due to extreme circumstances. I support death with dignity, and hope that we all can one day elect to pass with dignity. â€Å"Death with Dignity†

Identity Through Walking And Isolation - 1861 Words

Identity through Walking and Isolation Self discovery of your identity can be a lengthy process that requires a lot of time and isolation in order to find out who you are. Isolation is key while finding out your identity because it requires you to think for yourself without any outside influences. Walking alone is a great way to free your mind and look at your surroundings to find out who you are. In â€Å"The Solitary Stroller and the City† Rebecca Solnit talks about experiencing finding herself while walking alone through the city. She talks about being in a state of solitude in a city full of people. In The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time by Mark Haddon, Christopher is isolated due to the fact that he has Asperger’s Syndrome. He finds himself through utilizing the world around him. â€Å"The Solitary Stroller and the City† and The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time both demonstrate that walking and isolation are essential to discovering a personal self identity. In â€Å"The Solitary Stroller in the City† Solnit writes about how cities are made up of strangers. Solnit writes that, â€Å"In the city, one is alone because the world is made up of strangers, and to be a stranger surrounded by strangers, to walk along silently bearing one’s secrets and imagining those of the people one passes, is among the starkest of luxuries.†(pg. 186) Walking in solitude can be beneficial to one’s self awareness of the community surrounding you. While driving around a foreign city orShow MoreRelatedSocial Isolation, Neglect And Child Development964 Words   |  4 PagesSocial Isolation, Neglect and Child Development Social isolation is defined by Nicholson (2009) as a state in which the individual lacks a sense of belonging socially, lacks engagement and social contact with others and is unable to form quality relationships (as cited in Nicholson, 2012). Social isolation and neglect can have detrimental effects on a child’s overall physical, cognitive and emotional development. According to Kendall, Murray and Linden (2007), the initial love and nurturance weRead MoreEssay On Life Worth Living1290 Words   |  6 Pagesthough we stand in quicksand, unable to break free and move beyond. In Hamlet the quicksand grabs a hold of all the vengeful characters and sadly drags them down. We see a similar myopic view of life in Grendel who can’t seem to escape his hatred and isolation and in On The Amtrak from Boston to NYC where the Native American woman suffocates herself with generations of hatred toward whites. In A Drug called Tradition and in Kathryn Morton’s Story-Telling we s ee the importance of not being â€Å"trapped† inRead MoreBelonging Essay1048 Words   |  5 PagesConnection is the restorative force by which individuals reaffirm or transform their identities. Ultimately, it is the ability to form meaningful and sustaining relationships that allows individuals to assess and affirm their values. Raimond Gaita’s memoir, â€Å"Romulus, My Father† (RMF), Evan Hunters short story â€Å"On the Sidewalk Bleeding’ (OTSB), and â€Å"The Oasis†, a Shark Island Documentary, explore this notion through employing the universal themes of compassion, alienation and love as they enrich charactersRead MoreRomulus My Father - Belonging1451 Words   |  6 Pagesthe concept that Belonging is the driving force for the human condition. Each composer represents their varied perceptions of belonging in their texts, conveying that Belonging as a fundamental need we strive for in our search to create a concrete identity. The memoir, Romulus, My Father, portrays the ways in which immigrants in 1950’s rural Victoria struggled to be accepted in a foreign society, exploring both Romulus and Gaita’s personal experiences with Belonging. The tone of the narrative isRead MoreThe Theory Of Self Contentment And Wholeness1408 Words   |  6 Pagesonce he has cast off the false mantel of the social self that all those in society are obliged to wear’. The extent to which he could live outside of society can be demonstrated through his odyssey of self-discovery, for he found contentment and delight in simple pleasures such as nature and botanising, meditation and walking. His prolonged explorations of the natural world led him to experience states of reverie, something he confirms after his stay on the Ile de St. Pierre. It is in promenade fiveRead MoreZombies And Its Effects On Society1718 Words   |  7 PagesZombies appear to be evolving not only physically, but mentally as well. Due to their adaptations to feelings of sadness, love, and isolation, zombies have been rising in popularity. Their emotional adaptations have extended as far as zombies having romantic relationships, allowing the new genre of film, zombie romance, to peak the horizon and contribute to their prominence throughout history. In addition, the effects of their popularity on society include studies that have shown children obtainingRead MoreFranz Kafka and I smail Kadare861 Words   |  4 PagesThe Metamorphosis) and Gjorg (from Broken April) were actually similar in comparison. The similarities are isolation, loneliness, and their father figures. Nevertheless, both stories are magnificent to read during spare time. In The Metamorphosis, Gregor lives a melancholy life with his parents and sister. One day Gregor awakes to find that he has been transformed into a bug. A jump through the story, finds Gregor isolated because his family really did not approve of what he has become. The onlyRead MoreUnderstanding Erickson s Stages Of Psychosocial Development784 Words   |  4 PagesErickson’s Stages of Psychosocial development. These include, stage one: Trust versus mistrust, Stage two: Autonomy versus doubt, Stage three: Initiative versus guilt, Stage four: Industry versus inferiority, Stage five: Identity versus role confusion, Stage six: Intimacy versus isolation, Stage seven: Generativity versus stagnation, and finally Stage eight: Integrity versus despair. Stage one takes place from when a child is born until the age of one. In stage one â€Å"the infant is uncertain about the worldRead MoreFreud s Theory Of Psychosexual Development1055 Words   |  5 Pagesthe right track? In life, pe ople see development in different ways. From birth to death, the developmental process is very complex. There are many theorists who have researched what a person goes through and their behavior. They have established a set of guidelines and stages that a person should go through or be doing at certain times throughout life. Thus, this paper will aim to discuss the three main theories of development; Freud’s theory, Erikson’s theory, and Piaget’s theory. Sigmund FreudRead More‘A sense of belonging often emerges as a result of our feelings of acceptance and understanding.’1143 Words   |  5 Pagesattitudes to belonging are modified over time. Texts may also reflect choices not to belong, or barriers which prevent belonging. This is shown through the anthology ‘Immigrant Chronicle’ – by Peter Skrzynecki (1975). Also in the movie The 40 Year Old Virgin. Each of these texts explores belonging of acceptance and understanding in their own ways. Through the poem ‘Feliks Skrzynecki’ the composer portrays Feliks as a family man and saying that they connect together as one. Creating a sense of place

Toulmin Argument Free Essays

string(86) " other classes that teach the duties that must be performed and how to go about them\." Abby Boyce English 1201 Professor McGehee 10/22/2012 Cover Sheet a) Who is your audience? My audience applies to everyone in the US. My audience is very broad because my topic touches base on an issue that can or could potentially affect anyone directly or indirectly as well. b) How would you like your readers to describe the personality you present on the page? My personality is confident. We will write a custom essay sample on Toulmin Argument or any similar topic only for you Order Now I believe in my argument and feel strongly about it. c) What question does your paper answer? It answers the question as to whether or not there is an issue with police brutality. ) What’s your thesis/claim? Something needs to be done immediately to end the violence and inappropriate discipline being inflicted on our citizens. The harsh discipline we are discovering is being used more and more often should not be tolerated. Abby Boyce English 1201 Professor McGehee 10/22/2012 Toulmin Questionnaire Claim Questions: What’s my claim? Something needs to be done immediately to end the violence and inappropriate discipline being inflicted on our citizens. The harsh discipline we are discovering is being used more and more often should not be tolerated. Is it valid? What makes it valid? -Yes. It’s valid because I have lots of evidence and quotes from sources to back me up as well as strong warrants and backing to help support me as well. I truly believe in my claim and will defend it fully. Is it practical? Can it actually be acted out? Yes, and yes. It touches base on a topic that is growing and becoming a big problem in society. Using â€Å"sociological terms† it is becoming a macro problem. It’s no longer a micro one. Are there qualifications I must make to my claim? I’m not necessarily sure this question pertains well to my topic specifically, but I don’t feel there are any qualifications I must obtain to be able to state and back up my claim other than the fact that you must have some good evidence and knowledge on the topic. What will be some possible challenges to my claim? Some may oppose by saying the media is making police brutality into a bigger issue than it really is, or that the violence police use is justified as â€Å"self-defense†. Who could benefit most from accepting my claim? Who may be harmed or benefit the least? All citizens can benefit. The people that may not agree or like my claim is the police departments who hired police officers who have been offenders of police brutality. Grounds questions: What are my grounds? – According to the St. Paul yearly analysis, in 2010 crime rates for homicides alone have shot up 9% since 2001. – â€Å"In 1982, the federal government funded a â€Å"Police Services Study† in which over 12,000 randomly selected citizens were interviewed in three metropolitan areas. Do I have sufficient evidence to support my claim? Yes. I used pieces of quotes from the StarTribune as well as statistics from a trusted website. Do I have pieces of evidence that are compelling? Least compelling? Some of my quotes are more coercive than others. The statistics I used are stronger than the quotes I used from the StarTribune because the quotes seem more like an opinion rather than a solid fact. Warrant questions: What are my Warrants? – â€Å"To believe there is an issue with the criminal justice system, you must recognize the problem as well as believe that cops are not trained to nflict physical abuse on citizens, they are trained to help the community and to only get physical when demonstrating self-defense. † – â€Å"Of course believing that cops can be racially discriminating, means that you must believe racism is still a common problem in today’s society. † What other warrants may underlie the ones I have identified? There were a few different warrants I could have made for my groun ds. For example, the first I could have said that in order to believe that police are role models you must believe that in most situations cops do or have benefited the community in some way shape or form. Am I prepared to stand behind my warrant, regardless of the opposing views? Yes. I truly believe in where I stand on this issue and I believe I have a strong argument. Backing Questions: What is my backing? – Cops must complete a two year degree before they can be a certified officer. – It’s still a big problem because people are not bringing enough attention to it for it to be recognized. Does my backing apply in all cases? Why or why not? Yes. My backing is aimed to back-up my warrants to the best of my ability. Abby Boyce English 1201 Professor McGehee 10/22/2012 Formal Outline I. â€Å"In the middle of broad daylight, August 28th, 2012, laid a man helpless and defenseless after being kicked, beat, and sprayed repeatedly with a chemical irritant. † a. Refer to StarTribune article and discuss background/situation that happened b. Claim: Something needs to be done immediately to end the violence and inappropriate discipline being inflicted on our citizens. The harsh discipline we are discovering is being used more and more often should not be tolerated. II. Cops, especially street cops, are supposed to be the role-models of the community and are hired to benefit the community, not harm it. a. Grounds: Give statistics from St. Paul homicide ratings b. Grounds: Define police brutality c. Grounds: Use quote from the StarTribune III. Warrant: To believe there is an issue with the criminal justice system, you must recognize the problem as well as believe that cops are not trained to inflict physical abuse on citizens, they are trained to help the community and to only get physical when demonstrating self-defense. a. Backing: Cops must complete a two year degree before they can be a certified officer. The reason for this is so that they can learn the ethics that must be used while on duty as well as many other classes that teach the duties that must be performed and how to go about them. You read "Toulmin Argument" in category "Papers" IV. Claim: We are discovering that most brutality is directed against minority groups or otherwise powerless populations. a. The importance of understanding racism in the context of police brutality needs to be brought to attention and is extremely out of line. b. Grounds: Quote CliffNotes. com V. Warrant: Of course believing that cops can be racially discriminating, means that you must believe racism is still a common problem in today’s society. a. Backing: It’s still a big problem because people are not bringing enough attention to it for it to be recognized. b. Grounds: Use example that relates to my experience c. Grounds: Use CliffNotes quote VI. Qualifier: With all that said, there is only one exception to my argument which is, if a citizen threatens to use a lethal weapon on an officer or if a citizen gets physically violent against an officer, then physically restraining that person is reasonable and just. In officer training schools they are taught to use self-defense when necessary. a. Once put into physical restraints or if the citizen has calmed down or promised to cooperate, the self-defense should end immediately. b. Officers can and should always remain on high alert though. VII. If we want our officers to be treated with respect, and our 911 systems to be effective to end crime, then police brutality should not be tolerated and should end immediately in order to keep citizens safe and ensured that our criminal justice system is working to benefit the community in a positive way. Abby Boyce English 1201 Professor McGehee 10/22/2012 Police Brutality Awareness In the middle of broad daylight, August 28th, 2012, laid a man helpless and defenseless after being kicked, beat, and sprayed repeatedly with a chemical irritant. We later come to find out that man is named Eric Hightower, and according to the article â€Å"Police Brutality in the Age of YouTube† in the StarTribune, he has had previous run-ins with the law, but on August 28th his offense that caused the policeman (St. Paul officer Jesse Zilge) to violently kick and beat this man, while he lie on a St. Paul sidewalk, is unknown. Shortly after the incident a video was posted on YouTube, which provided solid evidence that this cop was completely out of line. But it’s not the first time there have been issues with the morality and brutality of our local and nationwide officers. Something needs to be done immediately to end the violence and inappropriate discipline being inflicted on our citizens. The harsh discipline we are discovering is being used more and more often should not be tolerated. Cops, especially street cops, are supposed to be the role-models of the community and are hired to benefit the community, not harm it. According to the St. Paul yearly analysis, in 2010 crime rates for homicides alone have shot up 9% since 2001. Many of those crimes may have been easily prevented if cops had been doing their job correctly and using appropriate punishment only when needed. Many citizens have become scared to call 911 and involve the police because they don’t trust the actions they will take. In reality, the police should be making you feel at ease and knowing you can call them for help should be something people should feel comfortable doing. Police brutality is defined as the intentional use of excessive force by a police officer. It takes many forms, including physical abuse, verbal attacks, and psychological intimidation. In the most recent years, we are seeing more and more cops being put on trial for their violent conduct. The story of Eric Hightower is just one of the many recently reported and investigated stories of victimized citizens being put in physical harm by cops. It’s beginning to make many of us wonder how many times there have been incidents like this in the past that have never been reported. It was brought to my attention more closely than ever when it was as stated in the StartTribune, â€Å"If an officer can kick someone in front of witnesses and a camera, how often do those types of attacks happen at night when cameras aren’t rolling? † Of course, to believe there is an issue with the criminal justice system, you must recognize the problem as well as believe that cops are not trained to inflict physical abuse on citizens, they are trained to help the community and to only get physical when demonstrating self-defense. Even when using self-defense should it ever be okay to kick someone, along with â€Å"slam someone’s head onto the car hood† (according to the StarTribune in the Hightower story)? The answer is no. If cops are supposed to be preventing physical abuse and fighting why on earth would it ever be okay for them to use it. Cops must complete a two year degree before they can be a certified officer. The reason for this is so that they can learn the ethics that must be used while on duty as well as many other classes that teach the duties that must be performed and how to go about them. Knowing that, I have a very hard time believing there is any circumstance an officer could say that they were unaware their behavior was out of line. We are discovering that most brutality is directed against minority groups or otherwise powerless populations. Officers who engage in brutality rationalize their use of inappropriate force by claiming they are punishing those groups that threaten to disrupt the social order. The importance of understanding racism in the context of police brutality needs to be brought to attention and is extremely out of line. Many police automatically regard racial minority group members as potentially dangerous regardless of their particular activities, gestures, or attire. This perception of racial minority citizens as â€Å"trouble† sometimes translates into racially discriminatory police behavior. According to CliffNotes. com, â€Å"In 1982, the federal government funded a â€Å"Police Services Study† in which over 12,000 randomly selected citizens were interviewed in three metropolitan areas. The study found that 13 percent of those surveyed had been victims of police brutality the previous year. Yet only 30 percent of those who acknowledged such brutality filed formal complaints. † I would be willing to bet that over 50% of those citizens, who endured the police brutality, are minorities or racially different from the cop that inflicted the abuse upon them. Of course believing that cops can be racially discriminating, means that you must believe racism is still a common problem in today’s society. Which in fact, it most definitely is. It’s still a big problem because people are not bringing enough attention to it for it to be recognized. For example, before reading the article in the StarTribune and prior to taking a Criminal Justice class that focused on the racially discriminating cops, I had no idea this was even an issue. It needs to be brought in the public eye so that people can start voluntarily coming forward and so the problem can be solved nationwide. I believe we this is a realistic request and hope for our future, because recently Departments in some cities, for example, have adopted special training programs to reduce incidents of police brutality. Other departments have formulated rules that limit the use of force by the police. Preventive control also requires supervising officers (for example, conducting surveillance of officers’ work) and disciplining those who violate departmental standards. A few amount of cities aroung the US are developing early warning systems to identify officers with high rates of citizen complaints. These incidents should be investigated, and if verified, the officers involved should be charged, disciplined, restrained, and/or counseled. According to CliffNotes. com, â€Å"Pittsburgh, for example, launched a $1. 5 million computer system. It monitors every aspect of an officer’s professional life—from the number of citizen complaints filed against the officer to the race of every person the officer arrests. † With all that said, there is only one exception to my argument which is, if a citizen threatens to use a lethal weapon on an officer or if a citizen gets physically violent against an officer, then physically restraining that person is reasonable and just. In officer training schools they are taught to use self-defense when necessary. Many officers though, are abusing that privilege. Once put into physical restraints or if the citizen has calmed down or promised to cooperate, the self-defense should end immediately. This does not mean that the officer should not be on high alert, but physically, he or she should not be getting physical with the citizen. If we want our officers to be treated with respect, and our 911 systems to be effective to end crime, then police brutality should not be tolerated and should end mmediately in order to keep citizens safe and ensured that our criminal justice system is working to benefit the community in a positive way. Abby Boyce English 1201 Professor McGehee 10/22/2012 Citations CliffsNotes. com. Police Brutality. 21 Oct 2012 ;lt;http://www. cliffsnotes. com/study_guide/topicArticleId-10065,articleId-9975. html;gt;. Editorial Board, . â€Å"Police brutality in the age of YouTube. † StartTribune. 09 2012: 1. Web. 21 Oct. 2012. ;lt;http://www. startribune. com/opinion/editorials/168689626. html? refer=y;gt;. How to cite Toulmin Argument, Papers

Why We Cant Resist It free essay sample

They also act as a preservative to extend shelf life. The sugar that reached the west was consumed only by the nobility, so rare it was classified as a spice. If you worked at the sugar mill and got your finger stuck in the millstone, they cut off your hand. If you tried to run, they cut off your leg. Today the average American consumes 77 pounds of added sugar annually, more than 22 teaspoons of added sugar a day. In 1900 5% of people had high blood pressure, and now one-third have high blood pressure. 153 million people had diabetes in 1980, today 347 million people do. We crave sugar because an injection of sugar into the bloodstream stimulates the same pleasure center in the brain as heroin or cocaine. Sugar is a poison itself if consumed at high doses. Article #2 â€Å"Sweet poison: why is sugar ruining our health? † www. telegraph. co. uk/foodanddrink 01/14 Author: Victoria Lambert Not all calories are equal, because not all monosaccharides-(the simplest forms of sugar, the building blocks of carbohydrates)- are equal. We will write a custom essay sample on Why We Cant Resist It or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When people ate 150 calories more every day, the rate of diabetes went up 0. 1%. But if those 150 calories came from a can of fizzy drink, the rate went up 1. Added sugar is 11 times more potent at causing diabetes than general calories. Look online and youll see fructose described as â€Å"fruit sugar† -its the nutrient that nature put into apples pears to entice humans(and birds) to eat it- Some agave nectars, for example, can be 92% fructose, 8% glucose. Were consuming fewer calories from â€Å"free sugars† such as table sugar, honey and sugars found naturally in fruit juices than in previous years. Currently 26% of britons are obese, half of americans are overweight. Sugar systematically destroys a lot of our organs without symptoms until its too late. First the liver, then the pancreas, then the kidneys, and ultimately the heart. Sugar is not bad for you as part of a balanced diet. It has an important role in providing flavor and texture to food. Sugary drinks make it harder for us to regulate the overall amount of calories ethan and a regular intake may be a factor contributing to obesity in children. Article #1 Summary: If sugar is that bad for you then why do we crave it? Because it stimulates the same pleasure center in the brain as heroin or cocaine. My question is, why is the sugar in fizzy drinks worse than in fruit. Answer: Because fizzy drinks are processed and they added more fructose then whats in fruit. Discussion: I liked the first article because it showed how bad sugar really is and it gave you things to contrast like (153 million people had diabetes in 1980, today 347 million people do. ) and (In 1900 5% of people had high blood pressure, and now one-third have high blood pressure. ) It made me want to look into the topic more in depth and research all of the different types of sugar and what are some good sugars compared to bad sugars. Article #2 Summary: If fructose is â€Å"nature made† why is it so bad for you? Answer: because sugar is sugar. In small doses such as fruit its not as bad for you as a can of soda would be. Since were consuming â€Å"less calories† from free sugar, does that mean we are eating less of the free sugars and more of the bad ones? Discussion: I like this article because it really made me think about everything it was saying. An example would be â€Å"Were consuming fewer calories from â€Å"free sugars† such as table sugar, honey and sugars found naturally in fruit juices than in previous years. † This article definitely made me want to expand upon the subject.

Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire)

Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire) Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire) was a French philosopher and a writer. Voltaire was born in the year 1694 in Paris. As a young boy, Voltaire received his education at the Jesuit school between the years 1704 and 1711. At the school, Voltaire learned Latin, Greek, English, and Spanish.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Between the years 1711 and 1713, Voltaire studied law while working as a secretary in Paris. Later on, Voltaire quitted the law school, and concentrated on writing contrary to his father’s wishes. As a writer, he wrote several writings in all major literary fields. It is estimated that he wrote more than 1800 books, 20 000 letters and numerous brochures. Through his works, Voltaire became prominent for his wit and hilarious verses. During the Voltaire’s time, Europe was going through the age of enlightenment. With contributio n from various intellectuals, advance knowledge spread across most urban areas in Europe. In spite of the advanced knowledge, it should be noted that stern and suppressive laws with severe consequences were practiced at the time. Similarly, it was blasphemous to champion Christian dogmas. In spite of this, Voltaire became a social reformist, and criticized religious intolerance, war, and social injustices in French institutions. As a result, Voltaire was arrested severally and imprisoned by the authorities. To date, Voltaire works are considered absurd. His works portray him as a racist individual, who has no respect for the Jews and the Africans. More often, he questions the Africans’ intellectual ability due to their involvement in the slave trade. Until his death, at the age of 83, Voltaire worked as a writer. In writings, satire refers to the art of using irony, mockery and sarcasm to provoke individuals’ or society’s behaviors. For a writing to be acknowled ged as a satire, it must possess the following five characteristics: be targeted at the crooked, be humorous, be reform oriented, be ironic, and be exaggerated. Satirical writings try to point out faults in society and organizations. By doing so, actions, injustices, shortcomings, and policies are denounced. Most writers do not choose to express their thoughts through satire to cause harm or damage, but rather to expose the vices in the society through humorous and comical ways. As a result, appropriate use of satire is considered as the most effective way of exposing evil traits in the society. In my opinion, Voltaire through Candide uses satire to condemn the world’s evil, Christian dogmas, and war in the society he lived in. Candide ridicules a variety of secular and idealistic theories. He sarcastically illustrates several inherent evils in the world such as earthquakes, diseases, and storms. Through this text, religious leaders and the authorities felt offended.Advertisi ng Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

Example of a Bad Academic Dismissal Appeal Letter

Example of a Bad Academic Dismissal Appeal Letter If youve been dismissed from your college or university because of poor academic performance, its only natural to feel embarrassed, angry and defensive. You may feel like youve let down your parents, your professors, and yourself. Because a dismissal can be so humiliating, many students try to place the blame for the low grades on anyone but themselves. After all, if you view yourself as a good student, then those Ds and Fs cant be your fault. However, to make a successful academic dismissal appeal, you need to take a long hard look in the mirror. While many factors can contribute to academic failure, that person in the mirror is the one who got the low grades on those papers, exams, and lab reports. The person in the mirror is the one who didnt attend class or failed to turn in assignments. When Brett appealed his academic dismissal, he did not own up to his own blunders. His appeal letter is an example of what not to do. (see Emmas letter for an example of a well-written appeal) Brett's Academic Dismissal Appeal Letter To Whom It May Concern:I am writing because I would like to appeal my dismissal from Ivy University for poor academic performance. I know my grades were not good last semester, but there were a lot of circumstances that were not my fault. I would like to encourage you to reinstate me for next semester.I work really hard at my schoolwork, and I have since high school. My grades dont always reflect my hard work, though, and I sometimes get low grades on tests and essays. In my opinion, my math professor was not clear about what would be on the final, and did not give us notes to study from. His English is also really bad and made it hard to understand what he was saying. When I emailed him to ask what I made on the final, he did not reply for several days, and then just told me I should come by to pick up the exam without emailing me my grade. In my English class, I think the professor just did not like me and several of the guys in class; she made a lot of sarcastic jokes that were no t appropriate. When she told me to take my essays to the Writing Center, I did, but that just made them worse. I tried to revise them on my own, and I worked really hard, but she would never give me a higher grade. I dont think anybody made an A in that class.If I am allowed to come back to Ivy University next fall, I will work even harder and maybe get a tutor for the classes like Spanish that I was struggling with. Also, I will try to get more sleep. That was a big factor last semester  when I was tired all the time and sometimes nodded off in class, even though one reason I didnt get sleep was because of the amount of homework.I hope you will give me a second chance to graduate.Sincerely,Brett Undergrad Critique of Brett's Academic Dismissal Appeal Letter A  good appeal letter  shows that you understand what went wrong and that you are being honest with yourself and the appeals committee. If your appeal is to succeed, you must show that you take responsibility for your low grades. Bretts appeal letter fails on this front. His first paragraph sets the wrong tone when he states that many of the problems he encountered were not my fault. Immediately he sounds like a student who lacks the maturity and self-awareness to own up to his own shortcomings. A student who tries to place blame elsewhere is a student who is not learning and growing from his mistakes. The appeals committee will not be impressed. Working Hard? It gets worse. In the second paragraph, Bretts claim that he works really hard sounds hollow. How hard is he really working if he has just failed out of college for low grades? And if he is working hard but getting low grades, why hasnt he sought out help in assessing his learning difficulties? The rest of the paragraph actually suggests that Brett does  not  work hard. He says his math professor was not clear about what would be on the final and did not give us notes to study from. Brett seems to think he is still in grade school and he will be spoon fed information and told exactly what will be on his exams. Alas, Brett needs to wake up to college. It is Bretts job to take notes, not his professors job. It is Bretts job to figure out what information has received the most emphasis in class and is, therefore, most likely to be on exams. It is Bretts job to work hard outside of the classroom so that he has mastery over all of the material covered throughout the semester. But Brett is not done digging himself into a hole. His complaint about his instructors English sounds petty if not racist, and the comments about receiving his grade over email is irrelevant to the appeal and shows laziness and ignorance on Bretts part (because of privacy issues and FERPA laws, most professors will not give out grades over email). When Brett talks about his English class, he again looks to blame anyone but himself. He seems to think that taking a paper to the Writing Center will somehow magically transform his writing. He seems to think that a feeble effort at revision represents hard work deserving of a higher grade. When Brett complains that she would never give me a higher grade, he reveals that he thinks grades are given, not earned. It's Not the Professor's Job to Like You Bretts claim that the professor didnt like him and made inappropriate comments raises a couple of issues. Professors arent required to like students. Indeed, after reading Bretts letter, I dont like him very much. However, professors should not let their fondness or dislike of a student affect their evaluation of the students work. Also, what was the nature of the inappropriate comments? Many professors will make snide comments to students who are slacking off, not paying attention, or being disruptive in some way. However, if the comments were in some way racist, sexist or in any way discriminatory, then they are indeed inappropriate and should be reported to the professors Dean. In Bretts case, these vague accusations of inappropriate comments sound as if they belong in the former category, but this is an issue the appeals committee will want to investigate further. Weak Plans for Future Success Finally, Bretts plan for future success sounds weak. Maybe  get a tutor? Brett, you need a tutor. Get rid of the maybe and act. Also, Brett says that homework was one reason he didnt get enough sleep. What were the other reasons? Why was Brett always sleeping through class? How will he address the time management problems that have left him exhausted all the time? Brett provides no answers to these questions. In short, Brett has made a losing appeal in his letter. He doesnt seem to understand what went wrong, and he put more energy into blaming others than figuring out how to improve his academic performance. The letter provides no evidence that Brett will succeed in the future. If youd like Allen Groves help with your own appeal letter,  see his bio for details. More Tips on Academic Dismissals Jasons Appeal Letter and Critique: Jason was dismissed because of alcohol abuse. See how he appealed his dismissal, with feedback.10 Tips for an In-Person Appeal: You may be able to appeal in-person to the scholastic standards committee. See tips for making the best case.10 Questions You Might Be Asked When Appealing a Dismissal: Be prepared to answer these questions appropriately.

The Utilization of Wellness Programs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Utilization of Wellness Programs - Essay Example The other issue relates to how HR leaders find themselves performing dual roles in the HR systems and as members of the top management team (TMT). Utilization of Wellness Programs The term Human Resources has different meanings which depend with the context of usage. In economics, it means the human labor or capital at a firm’s disposal. However, in business it refers to individuals who make up the workforce of an organization. In most organizations, a human resources department headed by the HR manager is created so as to manage the organization’s workforce and to harness its efforts. The department has various responsibilities which ensure that the workforce is geared towards the achievement of the organizational strategies. Some of the HR roles involve utilization of wellness programs. Wellness in this regard encompasses more than just absence of ailments. An employee’s lifestyle should resonate with their mental and body health as well as their spirituality. These aspects hugely determine an employee’s wellbeing thereby crucial towards productivity (McCalla, Kumar and Lybeck, 2009). Therefore, it is essential for HR departments to encompass wellness programs in order to ensure a healthy and productive workforce. HR managers and support staff have the best opportunity of understanding individual employees better through the wellness programs. ... A poor or disorganized lifestyle indicates a disorganized mind while the opposite is true. It is also important to note that wellness programs also include financial wellness. There is considerable comfort enjoyed by individuals when they dwell in financial health. An organization should therefore strife towards attaining wellness for the employees as a motivator. When employees are motivated in a positive manner, research has shown that they significantly increase their productivity (Ingham and Norris, 2007). Some of the popular wellness programs encompass health risk assessment, smoking and drinking and free or subsidized membership to fitness centers among others. Every organization ensures that there are clearly laid out policies or guidelines followed during operations to attain set goals. This means that everything that goes on in a firm must be in line with the set strategies. The various departments in the organization must also make sure that as they undertaking their respon sibilities they comply with the organization’s key policy. As a result, operations in the organization are harmonized through teamwork and chain of command within the HR functions (McCalla, Kumar and Lybeck, 2009). It is not possible to have a workforce that is willing to work together if most of the workers lead unhealthy and poor lifestyles. Some will drag the others in a team as a result of illnesses or even mental stress. Employees should be exposed to education coupled with activities inclined towards healthy living in order to improve the general welfare of the employees. Employee wellness results in reduced cost of insurance due to many lifestyle related conditions and diseases for organizations. Absenteeism is another big issue plaguing

What is the effect of the global economic crisis on hotel businesses Essay

What is the effect of the global economic crisis on hotel businesses throughout Switzerland - Essay Example It is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the international trends regarding the impact of global financial crisis on the performance of luxurious hotels. Section 3 discusses the impact of global financial crisis on the luxurious hotels in Switzerland. Section 4 discusses the impact of global financial crisis on the visits of guests particularly foreign guests in the hotels. Section 5 discusses the impact of global financial crisis on the unemployment trends in the Switzerland hotel market. Section 6 concludes the report. Since the tourism market, particularly the hotel business is the part of a country’s overall economy, all the major conditions in the overall economy are likely to have an impact on this market also. The trends in the European market show that there has been heavy decline in the investment in the hotel investment market all over Europe .It was the highest in the UK market followed by France and Germany. There has been heavy decline in the hotel occupancies and the unemployment rates all over the European market ((BNP Paribas real estate, 2009). In Switzerland, tourism is considered as one of the main contributor’s to the country’s wealth and hotel businesses are important components of the tourism industry(OECD,2000). The luxurious hotels in Switzerland have been attracting tourists from all over the world historically. However, in the aftermath of the global financial crisis in 2008, there has been a significant fall in the demand for luxury goods since people had to save money for essential goods like food, housing etc. This has led to a drop down in the luxurious hotel businesses in Switzerland. Hence, though it is reported that the hotel industry in Switzerland has recorded 37 million overnight stays in 12 months at October end greater than the 12 months period in the last year, according to reports ,a 3 percent fall in the overnight stay

Life Cycle of a Compact Disc (DC)

Life Cycle of a Compact Disc (DC) LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF A COMPACT DISC CDs have become an essential item in everybodys life. Despite its simple structure, it allows you to listen hours of music, to watch films on a player as well as to store a huge amount of information. For all these reasons, CDs consumption has increased in the last few years. Thats way a compact disc is an important matter of analysis in terms of life cycle and environmental footprint. In this essay Ill discuss the main points on the life cycle of this product from its creation to the final stage of its life. MATERIALS ACQUISITION CDs are made of many different materials. The main of them are: aluminum, polycarbonate, lacquer, gold, dyes and some other materials such as water, glass, silver and nickel. Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earths crust but the common aluminum is not economic sources of the metal. Thats why almost all metallic aluminum is produced from ore bauxite. Smelting of the ore occurs in different countries than the mining activity, so it involves its transportation. Polycarbonate is a type of plastic which is made from crude oil and natural gas extracted from the Earth. Lacquer is made of acrylic, another type of plastic. Gold is straight mined from the Earth. Dyes are chemicals made in laboratory, partially from petroleum products that come from the Earth. Mining is a key process at this point of the life cycle as it supposes the obtaining of the necessary raw materials that will make up the CD. All mining process involves the use of machinery such as trucks and excavator. Those vehicles consume energy and release CO2 emission to the atmosphere. In this stage, proposing any improvement is difficult as nowadays there is no other way of getting raw materials from Earths crust but by means of excavators. MATERIALS PROCESSING Materials acquisition is not the previous step to the manufacturing process. Most mined materials must be processed before manufacturers can use them to make CDs. As I mentioned before, bauxite ore is processed into a substance called â€Å"alumina† by washing, crushing, dissolving, filtering, and harvesting the materials. Alumina is then turned into aluminum through a process called â€Å"smelting.† Then the metal is shaped, rolled, or made into a cast. Regarding this material process, it has to be taken into account the fact that larger deposits of bauxite occur in certain countries and its processing takes place in different points of the world. This implies transportation from one place to the other and its consequent CO2 emissions. To make plastics, crude oil is extracted from the ground and combined with natural gas and chemicals in a manufacturing or processing plant. In some cases, burning plastics as part of a process can release toxic fumes. Moreover, the manufacturing of plastic often creates large quantities of chemical pollutants. In order to determine the carbon footprint due to all those material processes, we have to take into account the energy consumed in manufacturing and processing plant. Energy consumption is kept at a high level as smelting and some chemical processes require a huge amount of energy to be accomplished. MANUFACTURING PROCESS The manufacturing process of a CD is complex. An injection molding machine creates the core of the disc, a 1-millimeter thick piece of polycarbonate (plastic). Polycarbonate is melted and poured in a mold. Then, with the aid off high pressure, a stamper embeds tiny indentations, or pits, with digital information into the plastic mold. Those indentations or pits will be read by a laser when playing a CD. Therefore, it is an accurate process and it involves some specialized tools and machines. Then, the so-called process â€Å"sputtering† takes places. Through it, the â€Å"metallizer† machine coats the CDs with a thin metal reflective layer (usually aluminum). The playback laser reads the information off of the reflective aluminum surface. In order to protect the CD against scratching and corrosion, it receives a layer of lacquer as a protecting coating. Most CDs are screen printed with one to five different colors for a decorative label. Screen printing involves the use of many materials, including stencils, queegees, and inks. In the manufacturing process, a considerable amount of environmental aggressive products are used such as lacquer and inks. PACKAGING CDs are packaged in clear or colored plastic cases or cardboard boxes that are then covered with plastic shrink wrap. This packaging can be made from recycled or raw materials. For example, the plastic used can be from recycled bottles or from crude oil and natural gas extracted from the Earth and combined with chemicals. Manufacturing cardboard require cutting trees down. This is an important and aggressive action against the environment and therefore, it has to be taken into account when evaluating the environmental cost of packaging CDs. TRANSPORTATION/DISTRIBUTION The transportation supposes a considerable contribution to carbon footprint. Once discs are packaged, they are sent to all parts in the world where they are distributed. Transportation by plane, truck, or rail requires the use of fossil fuels for energy, which contribute to climate change. Moreover, manufacturing plants usually are located in underdeveloped countries due to economic reasons whereas the main consumption of this product is registered in developed countries. This involves long transport distances and then important CO2 emissions. USEFUL LIFE CDs are created with materials that are extremely stable. If properly stored and handled, most discs will last for decades. Certain conditions, such as high humidity, or extended periods of high temperatures, rapid temperature changes, and exposure to certain types of light, can damage discs and shorten their useful life. Keeping discs out of direct sunlight and away from heat and water will help them last longer. Following those easy instructions not only will save money, but it will also reduce the discs environmental impacts by preventing waste. From my point of view, this stage has an important meaning in terms of waste minimization. Our CDs consumption rate would decrease significantly if handling them properly. Making the useful life longer involves reducing all the process previous to the use, and so reducing the carbon footprint generated by the processing, manufacturing, transport process, etc. REUSE, RECYCLE OR DISPOSAL In order to reduce the discs environmental impacts, the disposal must be seen as the last option. Depending on their condition, discs can be reused or recycled instead of thrown away. Reuse A good way to keep discs out of the garbage is to reuse them. In this sense, one of the reasons why we get rid of discs is scratches. Minor scratches can be repaired by rubbing a mild abrasive (such as toothpaste) on the non-label side of a disc in a circular motion from the center out. Also, some commercial refinishers can inexpensively repair your CDs. Another main reason is that the disc is not longer wanted. Unwanted CDs or can be sold to some stores, traded with friends, or donated to schools, libraries, or other organizations. Buying used CDs borrowing them from the library can also help reduce the environmental impact associated with manufacturing new products. In my opinion this is the better alternative to disposal because unlike recycling, reusing doesnt involve any manufacturing or smelting process. Therefore less energy will be consumed resulting in a lower carbon footprint. Recycle CDs can be recycled for use in new products. Specialized electronic recycling companies clean, grind, blend, and compound the discs into a high-quality plastic for a variety of uses, including automotive industry parts, raw materials to make plastics, office equipment, alarm boxes and panels, street lights, and electrical cable insulation, jewel cases. Most CD recycling companies only accept large stockpiles of old, damaged, or unused from businesses. A few companies will accept smaller quantities of discs mailed by individuals. Once the recyclers receive the CDs, they separate the packaging materials, manuals, and CDs for individual recycling processes. You might consider contacting a CD recycling company on behalf of your school or school district-collecting CDs for reuse could be a good school or community fundraising project. Check your local phone book or search the Internet for a list of recyclers, and be sure to have one in place before you begin collecting CDs for recycling. As with most stages of product life cycles, even recycling has environmental tradeoffs. CD recycling is now an emerging technology, which means that many companies are not yet capable of recycling these discs. So, while recycling CDs saves natural resources, the trade-off comes from the amount of fuel and energy thats consumed to transport discs long-distances to an appropriate recycling facility. Disposal Only dispose of your discs when you have no other choice. Always try to share, donate, or trade your discs or drop them off at an appropriate recycling center. CDs and that are thrown away waste energy and result in lost valuable resources.

Demographics and Social Stratification

AUTUMN (REPEAT) EXAMINATION, 2010/2011 Exam Code(s): Exam(s): Mode Code(s): Module(s) Paper No. : Repeat Paper: 2BC1, 2BC2, 2BC3, 2BC4, 2BC5, 2BCA1, 3CL1, 4CL2, 4BI1, 4BI2, 1DB1, 1OA1, 1EM1, 1PIB1. Second Year B. Comm. Degree. MK 206 & MK 203 & MK 289 CONSUMER / BUYER BEHAVIOUR 1. ____ Special Paper: ____ External Examiner(s): Internal Examiner(s): Professor Peter Naude Dr. Declan Fleming Ms. Ann Walsh Ms.Orla Higgins Please answer three questions. All questions carry equal marks. Two hours. Release to Library: Yes ? Instructions: Duration: No. of Answer Books: Requirements: Handout Other Material No. of Pages: Discipline(s): Two including cover page. Marketing CONSUMER / BUYER BEHAVIOUR [MK 206 & MK 203 & MK 289] PLEASE ANSWER THREE OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS 1. What is meant by perception? (20 marks)Give a detailed description of the factors a marketer must take into account when devising a campaign to get the attention of consumers. (80 marks) 2. Discuss the nature of situational influence on consumer buying behaviour. (100 marks) Explain any two of the following concepts and discuss their relevance from a Consumer Behaviour perspective: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Elaboration Likelihood Model Fishbein Model Self Concept The Five Step Consumer Behaviour Decision-Making Model (100 marks) . 4. What is meant by Cognitive Learning? (20 marks) Describe two main Cognitive Learning Theories, giving examples of how these theories can be applied in marketing. (80 marks) 5. Describe the household decision-making process for children’s products. In your answer outline determinants of family purchase roles (role specialisation, involvement, characteristics) and describe how conflicts are resolved. (100 marks)

The Lesson By Toni Cade Bambara - 850 Words

In many pieces of classic literature, the theme is often misinterpreted. Poems, sonnets, and short stories frequently have misleading titles that put false ideas into the readers’ minds. Readers often begin reading a work with a biased opinion of the contents of the story. The superficial theme of a story is obvious, but the less obvious theme can have the most powerful message. In Toni Cade Bambara’s short story, â€Å"The Lesson,† the apparent theme is poverty and wealth, but the true theme is the misapprehension of everything not being as it seems. The first physical description of Miss Moore gives the reader the impression that she is a woman of little wealth, but it is later inferred that she is not poor. In the first paragraph of the story, readers learn, â€Å"†¦this lady moved on our block with nappy hair and proper speech and no makeup. And we quite naturally laughed at her†¦ And we kinda hated her too†¦ Miss Moore was her name. The only woman on the block with no first name. And she was black as hell, cept for her feet, which were fish-white and spooky† (Bambara 170). Sylvia and the other kids stereotype Miss Moore based on her looks. Even though Miss Moore and Sylvia both live in a ghetto in New York, Miss Moore is wealthier than the children (Eldred 510). However, if the reader glances over the smaller details of Miss Moore’s past, he or she will miss the minor factors that contribute to her economic status. She completed college, dresses well, and takes the children onShow MoreRelatedThe Lesson By Toni Cade Bambara992 Words   |  4 PagesThe Lesson: Summary/Response In the story The Lesson, author Toni Cade Bambara shows us a view of life from a black girl who lives in a poverty-stricken community just outside of New York City. In the story, there is a teacher whom takes the responsibility of teaching Sylvia and her friend group important lessons not only for a better education but to better understand life in its entirety. I believe the story is used as a tool to teach others about the lack of education in our nation in the seventiesRead MoreThe Lesson By Toni Cade Bambara1552 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout the years knowledge and culture has been passed down within generations. Elders within the community often teach life lessons to the young adults growing up in the neighborhood. This idea still holds true today, especially in low-income communities. People from different socioeconomic backgrounds live different lifestyles they also have different opportunities made available to them. Because of this idea, people with a higher social stand ing have an advantage over those in lower classRead Morethe Lesson by Toni Cade Bambara1428 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"The Lesson† From The Mentor Whenever there is a civil rights movement going on, there are always 3 parties involved. One the Oppressor, second the Oppressed and lastly the Activist or the Mentor. The Activists usually always emerges from the Oppressed. That is when the Oppressed intellectuals feel that it’s time to standup to defend the identity of their people and make them strong enough to make a name of their own. This is what happened during the early 20th century within the African AmericanRead MoreThe Lesson By Toni Cade Bambara968 Words   |  4 PagesThere is a lesson in every situation no matter if you choose to accept it or not. A lesson can sometime guide you in the right path that is needed in your life or maybe it can just be for a certain situation. In the short story â€Å"The Lesson† by Toni Cade Bambara, she relates teaching a life changing lesson to the character Sylvia. Sylvia is a very strong willed young lady who is challenged with poverty in her neighborhood. The story begins with Miss Moore, an educated black woman who moves in theRead MoreThe Lesson By Toni Cade Bambara1429 Words   |  6 PagesUpon reading The Lesson, by Toni Cade Bambara, the reader cannot help but feel empathy towards the narrator Sylvia and her friends, as they are introduced to the realization of unfairness distribution of wealth in society, the diverse democracy. The lesson is taught by a lady named, Miss Moore, who moves into Sylvia’s neighborhood block. Miss Moore is a college educated women who shows the reality of the economic inequality to Sylvia and her friends by taking them on a field trip to a fancy toy storeRead MoreThe Lesson by Toni Cade Bambara638 Words   |  3 Pagesthe hardest because the kids just want to play, goof around and don’t listen. Elementary teachers have hard time teaching young uneducated students just like Miss Moore with her uneducated children from the neighborhood, in the story â€Å"The Lesson† by Toni Cade Bambara. Miss Moore teaches the stude nts how to take the first step toward a better education just like elementary teachers, her teaching method were to show how the upper class lived in comparison to the children but she could have though themRead MoreThe Lesson, By Toni Cade Bambara881 Words   |  4 Pagesthe story ‘The Lesson’, Sylvia and her friends’ receives a chance to take a look at the upper side of town and compare how the two communities differ from each other. The author uses social conflict to explain the racial and social divide between the white and black community. In the story, the reader sees how social classes effect how adults and even children see the world. The author, Toni Cade Bambara, compares how blacks and whites live these times. In the story, â€Å"The Lesson†, a woman by theRead MoreThe Lesson By Toni Cade Bambara1346 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"The Lesson† by Toni Cade Bambara is not just about a sassy, defiant, ungrateful poor girl that is out of place in an overpriced expensive toy store. â€Å"The Lesson† is a short story about a young black girl who is struggling with her increasing awareness of class inequality. When Sylvia’s new neighbor, Miss. Moore, a smart college educated woman introduces the reality of social inequality to Sylvia and her group of friends, they become cynical. Sylvia has always known in the back of her mind that sheRead MoreThe Lesson by Toni Cade Bambara1830 Words   |  8 PagesThe Lesson by Toni Cade Bambara is a short story set in the inner part of New York City that gives the reader an opportunity to briefly see into the lives of children living devoid of wealth and education. It takes place in the early seventies, following the civil rights move ment and during a time when the imbalance of wealth in terms of race was immense. Bamabara, through the use of narrative point of tone, symbols, setting and characterization, brings out and develops what I believe to be theRead MoreThe Lesson By Toni Cade Bambara2703 Words   |  11 PagesCaroline Bergsagel Professor Reichardt English 1101/1102-681 14th April, 2015 In the story â€Å"The Lesson† by Toni Cade Bambara, the author uses symbolism, irony, setting, and black vernacular diction to show the children -the â€Å"other side of the street†- and the economic disparity and inequality they face. When a well educated teacher takes the the children on an allegedly fun and frivolous field trip to a toy store, it is there she shows the children the disparity they face in their neighborhood. By

7 Core Purposes for Education

Essay on Martin Luther King, Jr. - 591 Words

Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was born at home on Tuesday, January 15, 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia. His parents were Martin Luther, Sr. and Alberta King. He was born into a world where segregation was the law. Where his boyhood best friend, who was white, wasnt allowed to play with him once they started school. Where black people went to separate bathrooms, drank from separate water fountains, couldnt eat in whites only restaurants, and had to give up their seats on buses if a white person wanted it. Martin was a very intelligent boy. He was able to enter Morehouse College at 15 simply on the strength of his scores on the college entrance exam taken during his junior†¦show more content†¦D. in systematic theology. Upon graduating, he accepted a call to preach at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama. On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for not giving up her seat on the bus to a white man. The Montgomery Improvement Association (with King as their president) organized the boycott on the bus company that lasted 381 days and lost them 65% of their profits. In 1957, Martin helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and was its first president. Martin was arrested 30 times and spent time in jail (where he wrote Letter From Birmingham Jail), had his house bombed, was arrested once for driving 30 in a 25 mph zone (havent we all done this at one time or another), was stabbed, and finally, was assasinated. In 1964, because of his work in the Civil Rights Movement, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for being someone who had contributed the most to the furtherance of peace among men. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voters Rights Bill into law. This law guaranteed that No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, colour, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination. From March 16 - 21, 1965, Martin lead a group of 3200 people in a protest march from Selma toShow MoreRelatedMartin Luther King Jr.867 Words   |  4 Pagespeople, one of them is Martin Luther King Jr. He made the world a better place for black citizens by doing non-violence movements and marched the way to freedom. Martin Luther King Jr. was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta Georgia as Michael King Jr., but changed his name to Martin Luther King Jr. in honor of Protestant Martin Luther. Through his activism, King played a pivotal role in ending the legal discrimination of African American citizens. During his childhood, Martin Jr.’s father stronglyRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr1194 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ Simmons 1 Gabrielle Simmons Mrs. Fitzgerald Social Studies 8A 4/27/10 Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. is a well known and an inspiring man to all cultures of the world. King was and still is one of the most influential heroes. King s views and believes helped African Americans through the 50 s and 60 s to the rights and liberties that was their right. King faced many obstacles on his journey, things like jail and even assassination attempts. Despite these obstacles,Read MoreMartin Luther King Jr.1078 Words   |  5 PagesMartin Luther King, Jr., was a very strong person, constantly fighting for what he believed in, which was equality for African Americans. He was not scared to stand up and tell the world what he wanted for society. He was fearless and did everything in his power to prove a point. Martin Luther King, Jr., was the strongest individual of his time, for he fought until death, which proves how much he was willing to risk his life to make the world an equal place. Growing up, he had a very interestingRead MoreMartin Luther King, Jr Essay1153 Words   |  5 Pagesbe slaves, African-Americans saw a road trip to equality through the eyes of Martin Luther King, Jr. Even after being emancipated from slaves to citizens, African-Americans were not ready to wage the battle against segregation alone. The weight which African Americans carried on their back, was lightened when they began to see what Martin Luther King, Jr. brought to the table against segregation. Martin Luther King, Jr. was the single most important African-American leader of the Civil Rights MovementRead MoreBiography of Martin Luther King, Jr745 Words   |  3 PagesMartin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929-April 4, 1968) was born on in his mothers parents large house on Auburn Avenue in Atlanta, Georgia. He was the second child, and was first named Michael, after his father. Both changed their names to Martin when the boy was still young. King JR was born into a financially secu re family middle class with that, They received better education in respect to most people of their race. King Jr, noticed this and this influenced him to live a life of social protestRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr.1144 Words   |  5 PagesMartin Luther King Jr. (January 15 1929-April 4, 1968) Brief Summary (of who MLK Jr. is): Martin Luther King Jr. was a Baptist minister and an activist who led the civil rights movement in the 1950. He was a fundamental force behind the civil rights movement that ended legal segregation. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964. But he was sadly assassinated in 1968 on a second floor balcony of Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee†¦ Childhood: Martin Luther was never poor. He lived with a middleRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr.2405 Words   |  10 PagesMartin Luther King Jr. was a Baptist minister and social activist, who led the Civil Rights Movement in the United States from the mid-1950s until his death by assassination in 1968. IN THESE GROUPS NOBEL PEACE PRIZE WINNERS FAMOUS PEOPLE WHO DIED IN 1968 FAMOUS PEOPLE WHO WENT TO PRISON FAMOUS CAPRICORNS Show All Groups 1 of 19  «  » QUOTES â€Å"But we come here tonight to be saved from that patience that makes us patient with anything less than freedom and justice.† —Martin Luther King Jr. Read MoreMartin Luther King Jr. Essay1862 Words   |  8 Pagesbut the content of the character,† (Martin Luther King Jr,1963) Martin Luther King Jr. was a smart child and had a good childhood. He learned values from his parents, and Martin Luther King Jr was a man of much wisdom during his time. He was a major contributor to the civil rights movement, and those contributions have profound effect even today. Michael Luther King was Martin Luther King Jr’s name when was born. His parents changed his name to Martin Luther King when he was just a young boy. TheyRead More Martin Luther King Jr. Essay637 Words   |  3 Pages Martin Luther King, Jr. was perhaps one of the most influential person of our time. As the father of modern civil rights movement, Dr.Martin Luther king, Jr., is recognized around the world as a symbol of freedom and peace. Born January 15, 1929, King was the son of an Atlanta pastor. King accomplished many achievements during his life. He graduated from Morehouse as a minister in 1948 and went on to Crozer Theological seminary in Chester, Pa., where he earned a divinity degree. After that KingRead MoreThe Legacy of Martin Luther King Jr.1123 Words   |  4 PagesMartin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929 - April 4, 1968) was known as an activist and a remarkable leader for African Americans throughout the Civil Rights Movement. He was put in jail for his non-violent civil rights campaigns, spoke out for racial justice, and tried to find an end to racial discrimination. King’s legacy is still known present day, and continues to be one of the most well known leaders. Throughout Martin Luther King Jr.’s lifetime and the Civil Rights Movement, King was devoted

Vertical Boundaries Free Essays

Chapter 10: Vertical boundaries Chapter 10: Vertical boundaries Aim of the chapter To understand the factors that influence the ways in which transactions on a vertical chain (value chain) should be/are located on the market–organisation continuum. Learning objectives On completion of this chapter and the essential reading, you should have a good understanding of the following terms and concepts: †¢ transaction cost economics †¢ strategic calculation. Essential reading Buchanan, D. We will write a custom essay sample on Vertical Boundaries or any similar topic only for you Order Now and A. Huczynski Organizational behaviour: an introductory text. (London: Prentice Hall, 2008) Chapter 18. Douma, S. nd H. Schreuder Economic approaches to organisations. (London: Prentice Hall, 2008). Further reading Besanko, D. , D. Dranove and M. Shanley Economics of strategy. (New York: Wiley, 1996). Coase, R. H. ‘The problem of social cost’, Journal of Law and Economics 3 1960, pp. 1–44. Grossman, S. and O. Hart ‘The costs and benefits of ownership: a theory of vertical and lateral integration’, Journal of Political Economy 94(4) 1986, pp. 691–719. Williamson, O. E. ‘The economics of organization: the transaction cost approach’, American Journal of Sociology 87(3) 1981, pp. 548–77. 10. 1 Introduction As noted in Chapter 1, we may regard the basic unit in organisational analysis as an exchange or transaction generated in the division of labour. The division of labour (exogenous/endogenous – Chapter 3) creates value or vertical chains; for example as shown in Figure 10. 1(a) running from crude oil extraction to the retailing of petroleum products. We now operate at the level of organisations or firms (recognising that at a greater level of disaggregation the points in the chain are also based on chains of the division of labour) and pose the question as to where their boundaries should be located on the value chain. In fact the picture is usually more complex than the one depicted in Figure 10. 1(a). Activities usually depend on inputs at all points down the vertical chain, as depicted in Figure 10. 1(b). So organisations or market exchanges could control and coordinate each of these transactions. Furthermore, some of these inputs may be common to the points on the main chain (see Appendix 1. 2 in this guide), like accounting services, in which case the picture looks more like Figure 10. 1(c). Note the use of di-graphs once again. 91 Organisation theory: an interdisciplinary approach a) Oil extraction Refining Retailing †¢ (b) Shipping or pipe †¢ †¢ †¢ Distribution †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ (c) †¢ †¢ †¢ Accounting †¢ Figure 10. 1 †¢ †¢ †¢ In general we are asking the question as to whether a particular transaction should be internalised (make) or left in the market (buy), as depicted in Figure 10. 2; that is, whether a point on the cha in should be a department/ function or division or remain independent. For the moment we restrict our attention to this simple choice rather than the more elaborate positioning on the market–organisation continuum. We shall return to the more elaborate issue later on. †¢ †¢ Market (Price mechanism) Figure 10. 2 Start by asking what the benefits and costs of using the market might be. The benefits could include the following: †¢ Independent firms may be able to reap the benefits of economies of scale (i. e. operate at an output that minimises unit costs) whereas internal departments may not. Unless the firm itself can absorb all the efficient output of the department, it must either operate below the optimal output level or sell on to another firm. This might compromise any information advantages of the purchasing firm (see below). †¢ Independent firms are more subject to market disciplines than departments and may hold down costs they can control more effectively. Costs may be difficult to identify in departments. Firms might, though, attempt to replicate market incentives inside organisations. Tapered integration refers to a situation where a firm is supplied partially by an independent firm and partially by its own department. This allows their relative cost structures to be compared. Independent firms (i. e. their managers) may have stronger incentives to innovate when compared with managers of departments. †¢ †¢ Organisation †¢ 92 Chapter 10: Vertical boundaries The costs of using the market might include the following: †¢ Private information may be leaked to independent firms – particularly if there is a need to share technical information. †¢ The focal firm becomes to a degree depende nt upon an independent supplier (depending upon switching costs). Thus the latter has a power resource (see Chapter 6) and may use it to hold up the focal firm. It may prove difficult to control and co-ordinate flows of goods and services down a vertical chain of independent firms. This may be particularly so where there is a need to fit the products closely. ‘Just-intime’ methods seek to overcome this problem and permit independent firms often with long-term relational contracts (see below). The way most economists (following Coase and Williamson) think about the choice between a market and organisational exchange/transaction is entirely predictable – choose the arrangement that minimises costs. The innovation here is to ntroduce the idea of transaction costs – the costs involved in making (controlling and co-ordinating) the transaction. They are sometimes referred to as agency costs, and agency efficiency is found where they are minimised. So, if both production costs (which relate to technical efficiency) and transaction costs vary between organisational transactions and market transactions, then the total costs should be minimised. Activity Now read Sections 8. 1 and 8. 2 in D and S. If you would like to read a slightly more comprehensive economic approach to vertical integration, then read Besanko et al. 1996). In a world of fully informed, rational actors where contracting is complete, there are no transaction costs and the choice between market and organisational exchange is of no consequence (at least as conceived within this framework) unless production costs vary (which, again, they should not under the same assumptions). It is because we relax both the assumptions of full rationality and full information in the context of ‘real markets’ that transaction costs arise and the choice between market and organisational transaction is pertinent. Transaction costs theory is used both in a normative and positive sense. The new assumptions are as follows: †¢ Individual bounded rationality: people are intentionally rational but limitedly so. Individuals are neither able to make very complex calculations nor to assimilate large amounts of information. As you might expect, sociologists tend to like this assumption; they see it as more realistic than the full assumptions of rationality. †¢ Opportunism: individuals are not only self-interested but behave with guile. For example, in the context of game theory, individuals will issue promises which are not credible, make use of asymmetric information and they cannot be trusted. †¢ Contracting about transactions is incomplete because of inherent uncertainty and incomplete information. †¢ Contracting can thus lead to ex ante opportunism (namely, adverse selection) and ex post opportunism (namely, moral hazard). †¢ These hazards will be exacerbated to the degree that there is little choice of transacting partners and therefore reputations (see Chapter 7) in respect of third parties will not constrain opportunism – small numbers exchange. 3 Organisation theory: an interdisciplinary approach †¢ Anticipated repeated interaction will make reputations important to both parties but if in the process there is learning by doing, it is then costly to later switch exchange partner. Williamson (1981) calls this the ‘fundamental transformation’ – it ties the parties into the relationship. †¢ Williamson also observes that parties to a transaction might have a preference for a certain type of transaction in addition to the costs and benefits. He calls this ‘atmosphere’. In effect Williamson is introducing wider motives/utilities. Although the vocabulary introduced by Williamson is rather daunting at first sight, it has the advantage that it should link your thoughts into many of the ideas you have already encountered. Activity Think of transactions as a prisoner’s dilemma or trust game. Both parties would like to contract to achieve Pareto efficiency but each is wary of the other and in the absence of some mechanism to offset this wariness, the exchange does not materialise – the Nash equilibrium. So what mechanisms are available? You should be able to list the mechanisms. They can be derived as follows. Competitive market – the price as a sufficient statistic; here the prisoner’s dilemma does not model the situation. Organisation – three possible mechanisms which can produce the Pareto-efficient outcome rather than the Nash equilibrium are: 1. Authority and power. 2. Trust (cultural mechanisms). 3. Repeated transaction and reputation effects. As we have seen in earlier chapters, alongside monitoring and employment contracts (incentives), we expect organisations to avail themselves of a mixture of these mechanisms. But note, if we think in terms of ‘real markets’ rather than the ideal type of perfect markets, then the price mechanism is not sufficient and perhaps these mechanisms might also apply at different positions on the market–organisation continuum. We shall return to these matters later. Transaction cost economics embraces not only an unorthodox model of the individual but characterises aspects (‘dimensions’, to use D and S’s terminology) of transactions that impact upon the transaction costs. Activity Now read Section 8. 3 in D and S. The argument is that asset specificity (sometimes called ‘relation-specific assets’), uncertainty/complexity and frequency of exchange all increase the likelihood that a transaction will be placed (governed) inside an organisation (that is, make) rather than left to the market (that is, buy). Asset specificity comes in different forms: †¢ site specificity – adjacent sites, usually to economise on transport and communication costs †¢ physical asset specificity – e. g. pipeline delivering crude oil †¢ dedicated assets – assets of a particular buyer dedicated to a particular relationship †¢ human asset specificity – skills dedicated to a particular relationship which would be less valuable elsewhere. 94 Chapter 10: Vertical boundaries So we now have a predictive theory about vertical integration and, incidentally, contracting out. By and large, empirical evidence has supported transac tion cost theory – particularly the impact of complexity in the context of uncertainty – though one should bear in mind what Williamson terms ‘atmosphere’. If there are widespread specific preferences – for instance, managers might prefer the power implied by organisation – this would complicate the picture. Furthermore, other factors might influence the choice between market and organisation. Regulation and taxation can confer advantages in deciding where profits are generated. For instance, taxation might favour small firms, and firms operating across different national tax regimes may find it an advantage to contract out. An organisation might vertically integrate to gain a monopoly or acquire information or to limit the flow of information to competitors (see below). Given all these possibilities, it is perhaps surprising that such strong empirical support for transaction cost theory is found. Appendix 10. 1 in this guide gives a slightly more formal approach to Williamson’s reasoning. The transaction costs approach still leaves open two questions: 1. Will the integration, if appropriate, be backwards or forwards? 2. What type of organisation – e. g. centralised or decentralised hierarchy? (I leave an answer to this question to Chapter 12. ) An extension of transaction costs theory called property rights theory (which is not covered in D and S) provides an answer to the first question. When a transaction is internalised within an organisation, then ownership should (note the normative word) go to the party with the greatest impact upon the post-contractual rents. Activity Although this theory falls beyond this course, you might like to read Grossman and Hart (1986). Property rights theory is essentially a theory of bargaining power. Incomplete contracts mean that residual extra-contractual control of assets is important. Ownership confers bargaining power over operational decisions when enforceable contracts break down. Anticipation of post-contractual hazards determines earlier investment decisions. We now need to complicate the picture by reintroducing the market–organisation continuum, as in Figure 10. 3. I use the term ‘continuum’ with a certain amount of licence as the alternative positions on it vary in a number of respects and could be reordered. The continuum runs from perfect competition, at one end, to integration or organisation, at the other. The question now is: where should a transaction be placed on the continuum? Before answering this, let us look at what B and H have to say about the issues we have been discussing. 95 Organisation theory: an interdisciplinary approach Spot markets (perfect competition) Real markets Bargaining Franchising Long term contracts (network organisations) Tapered organisations Virtual organisations Alliances Joint venture Monopoly (small numbers) Externalities Asymmetric information Fixed cost (risk to supplier) Risk sharing Cost plus (risk to buyer) Decentralised Integration (up/down) organisation Figure 10. Activity Now read Chapter 18 in B and H. Again, this chapter in B and H is extremely detailed; you need to master the main ideas running down the left-hand margin. None of them is inconsistent with anything you have learned from D and S; though note that the definition of vertical integration is in fact backwards vertical integration. Table 16. 3 in B and H gives a good overview of what I have termed the organisation–market continuum. So let us now retur n to the continuum – see Figure 10. 3 – keeping the rich descriptions in B and H’s chapter in mind. First, look at what I have termed ‘real markets’. Here we recognise that in the real world the market environment is often far from perfectly competitive. If the transaction is left to the price mechanism, then various market distortions may undermine the price as a sufficient statistic. If, for instance, a supplier holds a monopoly, then backwards vertical integration may look attractive to a buyer. Likewise, a buyer might be tempted to vertically integrate backwards in order to acquire information or to reap benefits of vertical synergies (externalities). Long-term contracts (which will inevitably be incomplete) enable organisations to engage in a protracted relationship. They often occur between buyers and suppliers in a vertical chain. D and S introduced the idea of ‘relational contracting’ (an equivalent term). Remember, whenever you think in terms of contracts you need to think of the incentive, risksharing and information aspects. Fixed-term contracts put the risk of, say, increases in input prices to the supplier on the supplier’s back. Cost plus contracts reverse the situation. Between these two extremes, risk-sharing contracts can be designed. If the buyer and supplier have differing risk preferences then, other things being equal, an optimal contract can be found. Network and virtual organisations (see B and H) are usually based upon long-term relational contracts, as are alliances. Joint ventures imply equity contribution from both the supplier and buyer. Centralised 96 Chapter 10: Vertical boundaries So the question now is: where should a particular exogenously generated (by the division of labour) transaction be placed on the market–organisation continuum? (The normative question. Alternatively, where is it placed and why? (The positive questions. ) Transaction cost economics claims to be both normative and positive and answers both questions – minimise transaction and production costs! But as we have seen, this is only part of the story. Activity Now read Section 9. 8 in D and S. In summary, the choice of the position of any vertical transaction on the market–organisation continuum may be shaped b y: †¢ economies of scale †¢ anticipated information leakage †¢ acquiring information †¢ transaction costs †¢ residual property rights †¢ market imperfections †¢ regulation. But how are these various strands to be woven together? Unfortunately there is, as far as I am aware, no embracing theory. B and H introduce you to the concept of corporate strategy and to what many organisation theorists term strategic choice. Although the idea that organisational arrangements designed to control and co-ordinate activities are a matter of choice was first introduced by sociologists in reaction to an earlier tradition that spoke of ‘determinism’ – often technological determinism – we can now see this as an unhelpful distinction. Economists will always speak of choice where changing technology might either enhance or restrict the opportunity set which rational decision-takers face. We might then like to think of technological determinism when for whatever reason, the opportunity comprises a single option. I encourage you to think in these terms even if you want to question the restrictive notion of rationality (see Chapter 1). Activity Now read Chapter 9, particularly Sections 9. 1–9. 7, in D and S. Sections 9. 1 to 9. 6 of D and S cover issues of strategic planning that impinge upon organisation theory but are more often encountered in courses on management theory. You will benefit from reading them but they are not central to this unit. The central idea in management theory concerns the sources of what is termed sustained competitive advantage (SCA). Why do some firms/organisations manage to sustain a better performance than their competitors, while operating in the same markets? Statistics tend to suggest that this is a common experience in many markets. Firms often earn above-average returns (loosely rents) on their assets over relatively extended periods of time. The assumption is that they have some characteristics (but which? that their competitors find it difficult to replicate or improve upon, at least during the time in which the advantage is sustained. From an organisational theory point of view the question to ask is – are there ways of organising which can confer SCA? Notice that when an organisation possesses a competitive advantage, for whatever reason, then this implies that perfect competition is not operating. In so far as those running organisations seek SCA, they are trying to undermine 97 Organisation theory: an interdisciplinary approach competitive forces. The early sections of D and S’s chapter show how game theory is an indispensable tool in studying competitive strategies. 10. 2 Vertical contracting and strategic choice Consider a transaction between B and S, as in Figure 10. 4. The problem is to design a contractual relationship to gain any possible rents. In terms of competitive advantage this amounts to placing the transaction on the market–organisation continuum more effectively than the competition. Assume that there is need for relation-specific assets and a complete contract cannot be signed because of inherent uncertainties. Suppose now that B would like to persuade S to make the relation-specific investment. S’s ex ante problem is that in the absence of trust and credible promises, s/he anticipates that, once the investment is made, B will take advantage of the situation. S anticipates that B will always be able, once the contract is entered into, to find contingencies not covered by the contract. By making the investment, S in effect confers bargaining power upon B – who may even use this power to renegotiate the original contract (attempt to reduce the price of the good or service exchanged). S will then anticipate these moral hazards and accordingly not invest; the transaction will fail and both S and B will be less well off than they could be. Thinking in terms of the (for the moment, one-shot) prisoner’s dilemma, S and B find a Nash equilibrium rather than the Pareto-efficient outcome. So what can be done to achieve the Pareto superior outcome? S Figure 10. 4 B Some possibilities (neither exclusive nor exhaustive) are: †¢ B makes the relation-specific investment (but then B confers bargaining power to S) †¢ B nd S make a joint investment – an alliance or joint venture †¢ S continues to make the investment but enters into a long-term contract with B (note that relation-specific investments tend to imply long-term relationships in the first place) †¢ forward or backward integration (here non-market incentives/ monitoring/authority/power/culture achieve the move from the Nash equilibrium to the Pareto outcome). But let us continue to assu me that B wants to find a non-integration solution and still to encourage S to make the costly upfront relation-specific investment. S/he might do this in the recognition that S, as an independent organisation, may be relatively small, flexible and focused. S, furthermore, may be driven by a more entrepreneurial spirit than if it were to be a division or department in B’s ‘bureaucracy’. An independent S may be more innovative. Also small organisations tend to have lower labour costs (production costs). If so, then both S and B can benefit. The strategic problem is whether or not the transaction costs (ex ante and ex post) can be kept down while reaping these potential advantages. To offset S’s anticipated moral hazard problems, B needs to search for ways of reducing her/his own and increasing S’s relative bargaining power. To the degree that this proves possible, the strategy will offset S’s anticipated moral hazards. B needs to make her/himself more dependent upon S before the contract is signed. One notable way s/he can secure this is to decentralise some design and innovation responsibilities to S. B now becomes partially dependent 98 Chapter 10: Vertical boundaries upon S. Furthermore, B can commit not only to a long-term contract but also to relatively unconditional contract renewal. These strategies do of course put B at some risk. But since we are thinking in terms of incentives to transact, you should by now recognise that risk-sharing is another aspect of the possible contracts between S and B that can be subjected to strategic reasoning. Not unreasonably, I think, assume that S is risk-averse and B is risk-neutral. So S will accept a reduction in rent in order to reduce his/her risk and, relatively speaking, B will be prepared to shoulder more risk. So, a risksharing, long-term contract can conceivably lead to a Pareto improvement. Think in terms of post-contractual price negotiation. With a fixed-cost contract any increase in S’s costs will have to be borne by S. S will be reluctant to sign such a contract. With a cost-plus contract, on the other hand, B will bear all the risks of S’s cost increases. Furthermore, S will have no incentives to hold costs down nor, perhaps more importantly, to innovate in order to reduce costs. Clearly, B wants S both to innovate and, where possible, to hold down costs. It is not in B’s interests to take the risk from S and undermine these incentives. How can s/he provide appropriate incentives while reducing S’s risks and in so doing make the contract interesting to S? What B needs to do is to accept those risks of cost increases which S cannot control while making S responsible for those s/he can control – a tricky business. B needs to know the nature of S’s cost structure (an information problem – no problem with full information but with information asymmetry it is another story) before s/he can achieve this. Of course, integration might dispel this problem but then we encounter the bureaucratic losses mentioned above. What can B do? Go back to your principal–agent model (see Chapter 4). We can regard B as a principal and S as an agent. P (B) can acquire information by having more than one agent (S) operating in the same environment (in practice this is not easy). This is called multiple sourcing. It could be achieved by either multiple external sourcing or having an in-house comparator (tapered sourcing). But, of course, one needs to ask whether B’s sourcing requirements are of sufficient magnitude to reap any economies of scale across the multiple sources. If not, would it be sensible – from an information leakage point of view – to allow the sourcing organisation to sell to other organisations on the open market? If B has decentralised design to S then this might prove hazardous. As we have observed, long-term relationships (see Chapter 8) can invoke trust and reputation effects. Traditionally it was assumed that one of the advantages of integration into an organisation derives from the repeated interaction effects. B and S being in the same organisation, they repeatedly interact and, indeed, they will assume that there is a high enough probability that they will once again interact in the future. Thus prudent calculation can overcome the moral hazards in incomplete contracting. In game-theoretic terms B and S may play TFT (the folk theorem). B may also wish to protect her/his reputation for fair play. In short, an organisation can control and co-ordinate vertical relations by cultural means. However, long-term contracts with a continuation clause also produce repeated interaction (the Japanese were largely responsible, in the 1980s, for recognising this) and, thus, reputation and trust can be generated at other points on the market–organisation continuum. Cultural mechanisms can operate outside formal organisations. If B and S can trust each other not to behave opportunistically, then the advantages of S’s independence and reduced transaction costs can be realised. 99 Organisation theory: an interdisciplinary approach Finally, reverting to an extended value chain where S’s suppliers are also brought into the picture, we obtain the situation as in Figure 10. 5. †¢ †¢ R S B Price and market gt; †¢ gt; †¢ †¢ R S B Long-term contracts gt; †¢ gt; †¢ †¢ R S B Organisation span of co-ordination = 3 gt; †¢ gt; †¢ Figure 10. Should the whole chain be co-ordinated by integration (span of coordination) or perhaps co-ordinated by long-term contracts, etc.? If the latter, should B contract with S and R or should B contract with S and S with R? In either case we have examples of network organisation and even virtual organisation if the relationships are mediated by modern information technology. The strategic complexion of these sorts of organisa tion is little understood. Why don’t you have a go! I hope this section has given you some appreciation of how to analyse organisation choices from a genuinely strategic point of view. Much of the above reasoning can be underpinned from a game-theoretic standpoint. This further supports my earlier contention that modern organisation theory often requires a knowledge of strategic thinking and game theory. A reminder of your learning outcomes On completion of this chapter and the essential reading, you should have a good understanding of the following terms and concepts: transaction cost economics strategic calculation. Sample examination question 1. Explain why a transaction should be placed in a market or an organisation. 100 How to cite Vertical Boundaries, Papers